Since the beginning of the 20th century, northeastern Thailand has been officially known as Isan, a term adopted from Sanskrit Ishan, meaning in a “north east direction.” The term "Isan" was derived from Isanapura, the capital of the Chenla kingdom. The Lao-speaking population of the region, who comprise the majority, distinguish themselves not only from the Lao of Laos but also from the central Thai by calling themselves Khon Isan or Thai Isan. The Khmer-speaking minority and Kuy (Suai), who live in the south of Isan, speak dialects and follow customs more similar to those of Cambodia than either the Thai people or the Lao people.[2]
Agriculture is the main economic activity. Production lags behind the rest of the country due to the socio-economic conditions and the exceptionally hot, dry climate. Isan remains Thailand's poorest region.
The main language is Isan, which is a dialect of the Lao language. Currently written with the Thai alphabet (instead of the slightly different Lao alphabet), Isan belongs to the Chiang Seng and Lao–Phutai language groups, which along with Thai are members of the Tai languages of the Tai–Kadai language family. Thai is also spoken by almost everyone. Khmer, the language of Cambodia, is widely spoken in areas along the Cambodian border: Buriram, Surin, and Sisaket. The people are aware of their Lao ethnic origin, but Isan has been incorporated into the modern Thai state. Several Thai prime ministers have come from the region.
Prominent aspects of Isan culture of include mor lam (Thai: หมอลำ), an indigenous type of folk music, Muay Thai (Thai: มวยไทย) boxing, cock fighting, and celebratory processions (Thai: กระบวน). Isan food, in which sticky rice (Thai: ข้าวเหนียว, khao niao) and chiles are prominent, is distinct from Thai cuisine. Sticky rice is a staple of Thai Northeastern cuisine, and it accompanies most meals.
History
Main article: History of Isan
After the Khmer empire began to decline from the 13th century, Isan was dominated by the Lao Lan Xang kingdom, which had been established by Fa Ngum. The region was increasingly settled by Lao and Thai migrants. Siam held sway from the 17th century, and carried out forced population transfers from Laos to Isan in the 18th and 19th centuries. Franco-Siamese treaties of 1893 and 1904 made Isan the frontier between Siam and French Indochina.
In the 20th century, a policy of nationalist "Thaification" promoted the incorporation of Isan as an integral part of Thailand and de-emphasised the Lao and Khmer ethnicities of the residents. The national government claimed (incorrectly) that the name "Isan" was derived from that of Iśāna (Sanskrit: ईशान), a manifestation of Shiva as deity of the northeast, and the Sanskrit word for northeast. This interpretation was intended to reinforce the area's identity as the northeast of Thailand, rather than as a part of the Lao world. But, the name was used during the period when the territory of modern-day Thailand was ruled by the Mon and Khmer kingdoms. It predates any Thai or Lao populations. The name does not refer to the "north east"; it refers to "invisible power" and is derived from the area's pre-Thai and pre-Angkorian history.
Before the central government introduced the Thai alphabet and language in regional schools, the people of Isan wrote in the Lao alphabet, a similar script. Most Isan people still speak the Isan language, a dialect of the Lao language. A significant minority also speak Northern Khmer. The Kuy people, who are concentrated around the core of the Isanapura kingdom, and known as "Khmer Boran" or ancient Khmer, speak other Katuic languages, a link to the region's pre-Siamese history as part of the Mon–Khmer kingdom of Chenla.
Geography
Main article: Khorat Plateau
The average temperature range is from 30.2 °C to 19.6 °C. The highest temperature recorded was 43.9 °C in Udon Thani, the lowest -1.4 °C at Sakhon Nakhon Agro Station.
Rainfall is unpredictable, but is concentrated in the rainy season from May to October. Average annual precipitation varies from 2000 mm in some areas to 1270 mm in the southwestern provinces of Nakhon Ratchasima, Buriram, Maha Sarakham, Khon Kaen and Chaiyaphum. The rainy season begins with occasional short but heavy showers, eventually raining very heavily for longer periods almost every day, usually in the late afternoon or at night, until it ends abruptly at the onset of the cool season.
The other seasons are the cool season from October to February, when the people sit outside around fires in the evenings, and the hot season from February to May with its sudden peak of high temperatures in April.
Economy
Main article: Economy of Isan
Despite its dominance of the economy, agriculture in the region is extremely problematic. The climate is prone to drought, while the flat terrain of the plateau is often flooded in the rainy season. The tendency to flood renders a large proportion of the land unsuitable for cultivation. In addition, the soil is highly acidic, saline and infertile from overuse. Since the 1970s, agriculture has been declining in importance as the trade and service sectors have been increasing.
Isan is the poorest region of Thailand: in 2002 average wages were the lowest in the country at 3,928 baht per month (the national average was 6,445).
The region's poverty is also shown in its infrastructure: eight of the ten provinces in Thailand with the fewest physicians per capita are in Isan (Sisaket has fewest, with one per 14,661 in 2001; the national average was 3,289); it also has eight of the ten provinces with the fewest hospital beds per head (Chaiyapum has fewest, with one per 1,131 in 2001; the national average was 453). Nevertheless, as in the rest of Thailand, all districts (Amphoe) have a hospital, and all sub districts (tambon) have a clinic providing primary health care. The introduction of the "30 baht" health card has dramatically changed the numbers of those attending hospitals for treatment, as it has meant that full health care is available to all who register for only 30 baht per visit. The few who can afford it travel to the modern private hospitals and clinics in the large cities for non-urgent specialist consultations and care.
The region also lags in new technology: there was only one Internet connection per 75 households in 2002 (national average one per 22 households), [update needed] but by 2006 every district town (amphoe) had at least one publicly accessible internet connection, either in the local computer shop or in the district office. Extension of landline telephones to remote areas not previously served has been largely superseded by the use of cell phones, primarily of the GSM format, which now covers the entire region with the exception of a few sparsely populated mountainous areas and large national parks. Many people, even the poorest and sometimes children, have cellular telephones, although they have no fixed-line telephone. The region also has the lowest literacy rate [source?] when compared with other regions in Thailand. By the beginning of 2008, most of the amphoe (district towns of the provinces) had been provided with ADSL by the TOT, still leaving, however, the vast majority of the rural population dependent on dial-up connections - for those who have landline telephones - which are totally inadequate for the megabyte-hungry packages of data of 21st century information. Internet shops are now experiencing a boom for those able to get to them, and are heavily patronized by primary and secondary schoolchildren who come not only to use the Internet but also to play on-line games, use VOIP, or just to use the computer and printing facilities. An increasingly significant number of customers in the Internet shops, particularly in the cities, are young ladies searching for future Western husbands on the numerous dating sites. Resident Western expatriates, and foreign tourists are also frequent customers. For those outside the district towns who require a serious use of the Internet in their homes, an iPstar broadband satellite connection is the only alternative; although four times more expensive than a DSL connection, it is far less reliable and suffers considerable down-time due to overloading, heavy cloud cover, and rain and despite - in theory - being ‘always on’, it often lacks the stability for streaming and clarity of VOIP.
Many Isan people seek higher-paying work outside the region, particularly in Bangkok. Some of these people have settled permanently in the city, while some migrate to and fro. Others have emigrated in search of better wages. Rather than relocate as a family, they usually leave their babies and school-age children in the care of relatives, friends or neighbours.
Demographics
The main language of the region is Isan, which is a dialect of the Lao language. Northern Khmer, a dialect of the Khmer language of Cambodia, is also spoken in the southeast. Standard Thai is understood by everyone and is used for all official matters. The number of speakers of Isan has been estimated at between 15 million and 23 million, the majority of these being in Isan.
The Khorat dialect, spoken by around 400,000 people, occupies a linguistic position somewhere between Isan and standard Thai.
There is a substantial Khmer minority, concentrated in the southern provinces of Buriram, Surin, and Sisaket, and some Vietnamese refugees in Mukdahan and Nakhon Phanom.
Other languages spoken in Isan, mainly by tribal minorities, are as follows:
| Language | Family | Speakers | Distribution |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aheu | Mon–Khmer | 750 | Sakon Nakhon |
| Eastern Bru | Mon–Khmer | 5000 | Sakon Nakhon |
| Western Bru | Mon–Khmer | 20,000 | Mukdahan, Amnatcharoen, Ubon |
| Khmer Surin | Mon–Khmer | 1,000,000 | Surin, Sisaket, Buriram, Khorat |
| Kuy | Mon–Khmer | 300,000 | Buriram, Surin, Sisaket, Ubon, Roi Et |
| Nyah Kur | Mon–Khmer | Unknown | Khorat, Chaiyaphum |
| Nyaw | Tai–Kadai | 50,000 | Sakon Nakhon, Nong Khai, Nakhon Phanom |
| Nyeu | Mon–Khmer | Unknown | Sisaket |
| Phu Thai | Tai–Kadai | 156,000 | Nakhon Phanom, Ubon, Kalasin, Sakon Nakhon |
| Phuan | Tai–Kadai | Unknown | Udon, Loei |
| Saek | Tai–Kadai | 11,000 | Nakhon Phanom |
| So | Mon–Khmer | 55,000 | Nakhon Phanom, Sakon Nakhon, Nong Khai, Kalasin |
| Tai Dam | Tai–Kadai | 20,000 | Nong Khai, Khorat, Loei (plus Saraburi) |
| Yoy | Tai–Kadai | 5,000 | Sakon Nakhon |
Education
Education is well provided by the government in terms of numbers of establishments and is supplemented in the larger cities by the private sector (mostly Catholic schools and international schools). Following the national pattern of education in Thailand, there are primary (elementary) schools in all larger villages and (tambon) capitals, with secondary (high) schools to Grade 12 (approximately age 18) in the district (amphoe) towns. Many other secondary schools provide education only to Grade 9, while some combined schools provide education from Grade 1 through Grade 9. Rural schools are generally less well equipped than the schools in the large towns and cities and the standard of instruction, particularly for the English language, is much lower. Many children of poorer families leave school after Grade 6 (age 12) to work on the farms. A number move to areas of dense or tourist populations to work in the service industry. Many primary schools also operate their own websites[3] and almost all schoolchildren in Isan, at least from junior high school age,[4] are now (2008) largely computer literate for basic programs: they are well adept in the use of word-processing, layout of flyers, brochures and birthday cards, and simple, digital photo enhancement software.There are 43 (2001) government vocational and polytechnic colleges throughout the region, several specialised training colleges in the private sector, and large colleges of agriculture and nursing in Udon Thani province.
Universities are located in the major cities of Khon Kaen (one of the country's largest), Ubon Ratchathani, and the smaller provincial capital of Mahasarakham. Some Bangkok-based universities have a small campus in Isan, and Khon Kaen university also maintains a large installation on the outskirts of Nong Khai. For a full list of universities in Isan see the list of universities in Thailand. Most provinces have a government Rajabhat University, formerly Rajabhat Institute, traditionally a teacher training college.
Culture
Isan's culture is predominantly Lao, and has much in common with that of the neighbouring country of Laos. This affinity is shown in the region's cuisine, dress, temple architecture, festivals and arts.Isan food is distinct from Thai and Lao cuisines, but has elements in common with each. The most obvious characteristics are the use of sticky rice that accompanies almost every meal rather than plain rice, as well as fiery chiles. Popular dishes include tam mak hung, or in central Thai, som tam (papaya salad), larb (meat salad) and gai yang (grilled chicken). These have all spread to other parts of Thailand, but normally in versions which temper the extreme heat and sourness favoured in Isan for the more moderate Central Thai palate.
The traditional dress of Isan is the sarong. Women's sarongs most often have an embroidered border at the hem, while men's are in a chequered pattern. Men also wear a pakama—a versatile length of cloth which can be used as a belt, a money and document belt, as headwear for protection from the sun, as a hammock or as a bathing garment. Isan is the main centre for the production of Thai silk. The trade received a major boost in the post-war years, when Jim Thompson popularised Thai silk among westerners. One of the best-known types of Isan silk is mut-mee, which is tie-dyed to produce geometric patterns on the thread.
The Buddhist temple (or wat) is the major feature of most villages. These temples are used not only for religious ceremonies, but also for festivals, particularly mor lam, and as assembly halls.
They are mostly built in the Lao style, with less ornamentation than in Central Thailand. Lao style Buddha images are also prevalent.
The main indigenous music of Isan is mor lam; it exists in a number of regional variants, plus modern forms.[5] Since the late 1970s it has acquired greater exposure outside the region thanks to the presence of migrant workers in Bangkok. Many mor lam singers also sing Central Thai luk thung music, and have produced the hybrid luk thung Isan form. Another form of folk music, kantrum, is popular with the Khmer minority in the south. Although there is no tradition of written secular literature in the Isan language, in the latter half of the 20th century the region produced several notable writers, such as Khamsing Srinawk (who writes in Thai) and Pira Sudham (who writes in English).
Mor lam needs a special mention as its festival-type production which is very commonplace in Isan, has not been exported to other regions. Although it is a very exciting affair, not being on the tourist trail it is largely ignored by foreign visitors. When the locals speak of mor lam (pronounced mor'ram with stress on the second syllable), one will often hear them say pai doo morram (lit. 'go see mor'ram'). They are referring to the most common form of evening entertainment in the region. Somewhere, in a village within easy reach, there will be a mor lam festival on a Friday or Saturday evening. Usually, the rock-festival sized stage is constructed either in a temple compound or on a sports field. Thousands of people will sit on mats on the ground and watch the fun-filled program of variety entertainment. The traditional music and song is accompanied by extremely colorful choreography, executed by a group of up to fifty female (and some male katoey) dancers. The fantastic costumes are changed several times throughout the program, and the transitions are bridged by often raunchy gags, slap-stick comedy, and speeches by local dignitaries. A mor lam festival is a family affair and the area is surrounded by food and drink stalls.
Isan is known for producing a large number of muay Thai boxers: as with Western boxing, kickboxing provides a rare opportunity to escape from poverty. Isan's most famous sportsman, however, is tennis player Paradorn Srichaphan, whose family is from Khon Kaen.
Marriage and courtship in Isan still mainly follows strict tradition, especially in rural areas, and most young women are married by the time they are 20 years old. Many girls, in spite of the legal requirement, marry as young as fourteen to escape poverty, as usually marriage is associated with a dowry paid by the husband to the bride's family. A dowry will not normally be less than 40,000 Thai baht, and according to the status of the bride and/or her family, can often greatly exceed 300,000 baht. Isan women rarely have boyfriends until they meet the man whom they will eventually marry, and tradition requires that the betrothal is then announced. Younger fiancées will be chaperoned, usually by a female friend, brother or sister while in the company of their future husband. The wedding ceremony usually takes place in the bride's home and is normally officiated by one or several monks or a respected village elder who has been a monk. Young couples are increasingly registering their marriages at the city hall, which they can do if they are over 17. The extended family system is still very much the traditional social structure in Isan, with newly wed couples often living with in-laws or building a home on the family compound or farmland. It is not unusual however, for many women to remain single until much later. Tradition demands that the youngest or only daughter continues to live at home to take care of her parents. They are then only free to marry when both parents are deceased. There is also the tradition that a woman should 'marry up' in status. If the woman is tied to an occupation in a rural area as a farm or business owner, teacher, or similar profession, finding a suitable husband and one who is prepared to relocate is often not easy.
Water buffalo are a regular feature, even in the suburbs, being walked to and from the fields at dawn and dusk. Although rarely used nowadays for working the land, they are considered an important status symbol. The current value (2010) of one head of buffalo is about 20,000 Thai baht (2010: USD 620).
The cultural separation from Central Thailand, combined with the region's poverty and the typically dark skin of its people, has encouraged a considerable amount of discrimination against the people of Isan from non-ethnic Thais of Chinese descent.[citation needed] Even though many Isan people now work in the cities rather than in the fields, many hold lower-status jobs such as construction workers, stall vendors and tuk-tuk taxi drivers, and discriminatory attitudes have been known to persist with many Thai-Chinese inhabitants. Nevertheless, Isan food and music have both been enthusiastically adopted and adapted to the tastes of the rest of the country.
The process of Thaification has diluted somewhat the distinctive character of Isan culture, particularly in the cities and in provinces, such as Khorat, which are closest to the Central Thai heartlands and which have been under Thai rule the longest.
Religion
Thaification
Main article: Thaification
Anouvong, the last of the kings of Lan Xang (Million Elephants) rebelled against Siamese suzerainty, and lost in a war that raged on for two years. Korat was then repopulated by forced migration of Mekong valley Lao,[6] with a heavy influx of voluntary Chinese migration. The plateau was claimed by Siam when France and Siam divided Lao territories following the Franco-Siamese War of 1893. Roi Et was established early in the 20th Century to further Siamese control, and to further assimilation of the population into the Kingdom.Transportation
Rail
The State Railway of Thailand has two main lines in Isan, both connecting the region to Bangkok. One runs east from Khorat, through Surin to Ubon; the other runs north through Khon Kaen and Udon to Nong Khai. In early 2009, a newly completed rail link from Nong Khai came into operation. It crosses the Friendship road bridge into Laos territory to a terminus a few kilometres north of the land border crossing. It remains unclear whether this line will be extended the remaining 20 kilometres to Vientiane, the capital of Laos.Road
There are 15,000 km of highway, centred on the Thanon Mitraphap ("Friendship Highway") built by the United States to supply its military bases in the 1960s and 1970s. A road bridge (the Saphan Mitraphap or Friendship Bridge) jointly built by the Australian, Laos and Thai governments forms the border crossing over the Mekong River on the outskirts of Nong Khai to Vientiane, the capital of Laos, about 25 km away.Most roads in Isan are paved. All major roads interconnecting the province capitals are in excellent condition for driving, and most are centrally divided four or six-lane highways. Many roads connecting province capitals to larger district towns are also currently (2008) being widened to four lane highways with median strips. The paving on some very minor roads in the poorer districts may be navigable with difficulty, due to large, deep potholes. Unpaved, graded roads link some of the smaller, more remote villages, but they are comfortably navigable at normal driving speeds for wheeled vehicles. Most of the stretches of paved roads through villages are lit at night, many with powerful sodium lighting, some of which are on independently solar-powered masts. Reflecting 'cats-eyes' marking the central line of two-lane roads are a common feature. Crash barriers are installed along the sides of dangerous bends and precipitous verges. Signposting is excellent and follows international style. Since 2002 (with the exception of some poorer sub-districts), all signs are bilingual in Thai and Roman script, although the spellings in Roman script may defy the logic of English pronunciation, and vary significantly.
The main highways have frequent, Western-style rest and refuelling stations which accept payment by major credit/debit cards. In 2006, all fuel stations sell 91 and 95 octane gasoline/petrol and diesel fuel, but LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas) and NGV (Natural Gas for Vehicles) is very rare outside the cities of Nakhon Ratchasima, Khon Kaen and Udon Thani. Since 2009, bio-diesel fuel is becoming increasingly available.
